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Teach
I.
In the OT
While the OT contains no specific reference to academic instruction, several
allusions to public instruction or to teaching at court or sanctuary do
appear among the earlier biblical texts; examples include Moses’ instruction
of the Israelites (Dt. 31:12f), Eli’s instruction of Samuel (1 S. 2–3),
Nathan’s counsel to King David (e.g., 1 K. 1:11–40), Jehoshaphat’s programs
of instruction in the law (2 Ch. 17:7–9), and Isaiah’s relationship to a
circle of disciples (Isa. 8:16). Further, the presence of schools among
other Near Eastern cultures (3rd millennium b.c. in Sumer and Egypt), and
the subsequent development of prominent academic circles within late
Judaism, also argue for the existence of academic institutions in ancient
Israel. Without question, however, the core of early Hebrew instruction
occurred in the home.
While the educational techniques used in ancient preexilic Israel are now
lost to us, the various OT terms for teaching give indications of Israel’s
philosophy of instruction. The RSV OT most often translates as "teach" the
verb laµmad_ (piel), which conveys
the idea of training or exercise. The term probably was first used for the
training of animals (cf. Jer. 31:18) but soon came to be used for the
teaching of skills related to war, religion, and life. This verb implies the
hearer’s active participation in response to both the teacher and what is
taught. The hiphil of yaµraÆ
("throw," "shoot") focuses upon "direction" in the course of instruction.
From this root is derived the noun toÆraÆ
("teaching" or "instruction," in distinction from the often misused
translation "law"; cf. AV), which signifies the tradition by which the
community was to conduct itself with respect to ritual and society. The
practical focus of this verb is demonstrated in the wisdom literature, which
equates teaching "the way of wisdom" with leading in "the paths of
uprightness" (Prov. 4:11). The verb yaµd_a’
(hiphil) indicates the declaration of specific knowledge. It commonly refers
to an individual’s capacity to discriminate in learning situations (Job
37:19; Prov. 9:9).
From
the beginning, the foundation upon which education in Israel was based was
the need to develop an appropriate relationship with God (cf. Prov. 1:7).
All instruction incorporated this total perception of life. Thus its
functions included the shaping of the individual’s morality and the
structuring of the community’s self-definition. Such teaching presupposes an
outside authority figure, namely, God (Ex. 4:12; Isa. 2:3) or an agent of
God (e.g., princes, Levites, and priests, 2 Ch. 17:7–9; prophets, Isa. 9:15;
priests, Ezk. 44:21–23; Mic. 3:11). The teacher maintained authority by
adhering to the teaching of God. The later texts of the OT (the soil of
rabbinic Judaism) use laµmad_ (piel)
to suggest an exposition of toÆraÆ
(e.g., 2 Ch. 17:7–9), which had the specific purpose of establishing an
appropriate relationship between the individual and God on the one hand, and
between the individual and neighbor on the other. In this context, the
father-son relationship reflected in the wisdom literature became a model
for teaching in the rabbinic schools (TB Sanhedrin 19b). In rabbinic
literature the piel of laµmad_
became associated with exegesis, being used often in the sense of "reach a
scholarly opinion" (e.g., Mish Berakoth
ii.5–8).
The
Hebrew terms rendered "teach" in the RSV can denote the transmission of
specific statutes and ordinances associated with
toÆraÆ, or the act of providing education in the broader
sense. In every case, however, the concept of teaching is associated with
that of revelation. Thus the early Deuteronomic tradition indicates that
Moses "taught" the early Israelites the statutes and ordinances of God’s law
(Dt. 4:1, 5, etc.; cf. Lev. 10:11), and that the Lord "taught war" to Israel
through the nations that remained in Canaan during the period of the Judges
(Jgs. 3:2). Israel was taught its true identity through its intimate
relationship to the God of salvation. This identity is reflected in the
Shema, which became an axis for Hebrew teaching (Dt. 6:4–9). Wisdom
literature understands teaching as a vehicle by which the righteous hearer
can benefit from both instruction in wisdom and commonsense advice (cf. Prov.
4:11). Such wisdom and advice resided within the community of Israel but was
also informed by the influence of Mesopotamian and Egyptian wisdom. Wisdom
literature taught a way of life rooted in the fear of the Lord but guided by
the principles of cultural wisdom (Job 32:7; Eccl. 12:9; see also the book
of Sirach).
During the Babylonian captivity Judaism began to institutionalize its
teaching in centers of instruction, or synagogues, in order to preserve the
wisdom of the Mosaic law for its people. Those exiles who returned to Judah
during the Second Temple period wept to hear their teachers read the "words
of the law," which had been preserved under the oppression of the nations (Neh.
8:9). The preservation of instruction during the intertestamental period
took place primarily in the community teaching provided by these synagogues.
Teaching became a function of national identity and was the guiding light by
which the Maccabean rebellion initiated the restoration of Jewish autonomy.
The role of scribe, already prominent by the 5th cent b.c., developed
further in reaction to Hellenism. With the onset of Roman political
oppression teachers of Judaism gained prominence as leaders in society.
Under Rome’s dominance, however, it became more important — and safer — to
study toÆraÆ than to practice it (TB
Kiddushin 40b). As a result,
Judaism’s self-understanding was shaped by the rabbinic circles, which
maintained Scripture as a focal consideration in both public and private
spheres. "Scribal learning" was consequently the key to political influence
as well as religious authority in Jewish society.
II.
In the NT
The
basic assumptions about teaching in the OT appear also in the NT. Whereas
Greek society viewed teaching as little more than the transmission of
instruction, the OT concept of teaching’s total claim upon the pupil
continued in the NT. In contrast to the OT, however, the NT’s focus of
instruction shifts to the message and works of the historical Jesus,
concluding with the Resurrection.
The
primary NT term for "teach," Gk didaŒskoµ,
is attested from the time of Homer. The term incorporates various aspects of
instruction (training, direction, and discrimination) represented by
parallel words in the OT. It does not emphasize imitation of the teacher so
much as the development of a pupil’s talents and abilities. While the term
appears in a religious context only rarely in Greek society, it occurs about
one hundred times in the LXX as a translation of Heb
laµmad_. This suggests that
didaŒskoµ came to have a technical
significance for Greek-speaking Jews (see TDNT, II, 135f).
The
roles of teacher and student had become well defined by NT times. Jesus’
role as didaŒskalos ("teacher,"
"master"; cf. Mt. 8:19; etc.; teachers of the Mosaic law are most often
designated as nomodidaŒskalos) falls
within the parameters of the rabbi in first-century Judaism. Several
passages mention that Jesus sat while He taught — a pedagogic style typical
of contemporary teachers (Mt. 5:1; Lk. 5:3). Indeed, the Synoptics indicate
that teaching was one of Jesus’ prominent functions (e.g., Mt. 4:23). Thus
He appears frequently at synagogues, where facilities for instruction were
available (Mt. 9:35; Jn. 18:20; cf. TP Megillah 73d). The disciples
may also be compared to the students of the great Jewish teachers, who
themselves transmitted the traditions of toÆraÆ.
Unlike the teaching of the scribes, however, Jesus’ teaching is not
concerned with the preservation of
toÆraÆ; instead it is oriented toward an interpretation of the
tradition that brings the hearer closer to the kingdom of God. Jesus is
portrayed as the ultimate teacher. In contrast to His teaching, the
teachings of His contemporaries are the "precepts of men" (Mk. 7:7). The
Gospels depict Him as a new interpreter of
toÆraÆ who shapes His audience’s perception of God through both
His teaching and His person. He is the catalyst behind the preaching and
teaching of His followers (Mt. 28:19f).
Outside the Gospels, teaching in the NT is based upon Jesus’ instruction and
the witness of His resurrection. This message underlies, e.g., the baptism
of converts (1 Peter; cf. Did. 1–6). Paul considered the function of
teaching to be a gift (Rom. 12:6f) and associated it with the revelation of
the risen Christ, which is taught by the Spirit (1 Cor. 2:13) to those who
are able to understand it. With the development of offices in the early
Christian congregations, the role of teacher (teaching was not distinguished
from preaching; see Preach II.B.1.b) became a primary function (cf.
Acts 13:1; Eph. 4:11; 2 Tim. 1:11; Jas. 3:1). It was through the teacher
that sound instruction was maintained. Thus, the Pastoral Epistles
established guidelines for those who were to serve as teachers in the
Church: temperance, seriousness, faithfulness, love, steadfastness,
reverence, integrity, gravity (Tit. 2:1–15). Such criteria insured the rise
of responsible leaders whose authority would be accepted by the community;
the prominence of these teachers also led to the development of the office
of bishop along a teaching model. As in the Jewish tradition, the context
for teaching within the Christian community was ultimately the congregation,
the extended family of faith. See also Cathechist; Education;
Instruct.
Bibliography.—W. Barclay, Train Up a Child
(1959); D. Daube, NT and Rabbinic Judaism (1956); DNTT, III, 759–771;
C. H. Dodd, The Bible and the Greeks (1935); JewEnc, XV, sv "Torah" (Rabinowitz,
Harvey); A. Lemaire, Les écoles et la formation de la Bible dans l’ancien
Israel (1981); TDNT, II, sv didavscw ctl. (Rengstorf);
THAT, IV, sv ærdml (Kapelrud); Theologische Realenzyklopädie, X, sv "Erziehung"
(Nipkow).
C. N. Jefford |
